GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF SHORT STORY

 

INTRODUCTION:

Short prose fiction is one of the oldest forms of literature. The earliest examples of the short story can be seen in the stories written in 3000 BCE in ancient Egypt. The parables of the Bible are another examples of short prose fiction. These impart moral lessons to the reader. Yet another example of this genre is the Sanskrit collection of ‘Panchtantra’ from India. Other examples from the East include the Arabic collections Thousand and One Nights and The Book of Sindbad. Two of the most well-known collections of early short stories from the West are the Decameron, a collection of a hundred tales by the Italian writer Boccaccio, and The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. Both were written in the fourteenth century.

FOREFATHERS OF SHORT STORY:
It can be said that the forefathers of the short story are myth, legend, parable, fairy tale, fable, anecdote, character study and even the ballad. The features of short story as a literary form are similar to that of the French ‘conte’ and ‘novelle’, the Spanish ‘novela’, the Italian ‘novella’ and the German ‘Novelle’.

In second half of the 18^th century the short story was being developed and established in Britain. It was partly as a result of the popularity of the oriental tale but more so as a result of the popularity of the Gothic novel. In the opening years of the 19^th century the short story as a form was highly evolved, especially in the shape of the ghost story and the horror story, and the stories which had to do with the supernatural.

The short story was recognised as a major literary form in the nineteenth century. The form first became popular not in England, but in America. Even there the term ‘short story’ was used only in 1880s. Edgar Allan Poe was the first important author to analyse this form and discuss the various effects that a short story could have, such as surprise and fear.

Other American writers include Nathaniel Hawthrone, Herman Melville and O. Henry. Some examples of well known short stories are ‘The Legend of Sleepy Hollow’ by Washington Irving, ‘The Gift of Magi’ by O. Henry, ‘The Necklace’ by Guy de Maupassant, and ‘The Secret Life of Walter Mitty’ by James Thurber. Famous collections of short stories include Poe’s ‘Tales of Mystery and Imagination’(1902), ‘Dubliners (1914) by James Joyce, and ‘Interpreter of Maladies’ (1999) by Jhumpa Lahiri.

CONCLUSION:

Today,  the short story is a very popular form all over the world and appears in almost every language. Famous writers of short stories include Anton Chekhov, Arthur Conan Doyle, D.H. Lawrence, Leo Tolstoy, Earnest Hemingway, Flannery O’ Connor, Franz Kafka, R.K. Narayan, Ray Bradbury, Saadat Hasan Manto, Isaac Asimov, Khushwant Singh and Alice Munroe, to name just a few.

INTRODUCTION TO ESSAY AS A LITERARY FORM

 

INTRODUCTION:

The essay is a widely practiced form in modern literature. An essay could be defined as a short piece of writing that reveals the writer’s views or analysis of particular subject. As a literary form, it is difficult to study systematically since it varies greatly in style, treatment and method. It could range in length from Francis Bacon’s brief pieces of concentrated wisdom, running into a page or two, to the book length pieces by John Locke, Lord Macaulay and Herbert Spencer. It is one of the most flexible and adaptable of all literary forms.

The essay could vary in subject matter too. For example, Bacon shared his views on various subjects ranging from love, death, and atheism to travel, marriage and gardens. The essays of the French renaissance philosopher Michel de Montaigne are an assortment of random thoughts, quotations and anecdotes. Even with regard to treatment, each writer has his or her own style in approaching the subject. Charles Lamb employed a conversational style, taking the reader through a gamut of emotions, while Jonathan Swift used biting satire to attack his opponents in his essays.

SOME DEFINITIONS OF ESSAY

The word ‘essay’ has been applied to nearly every kind of writing except poems, plays and stories. For the sake of convenience, one can define the essay as a brief composition in prose on any particular subject or branch of a subject. According to Samuel Johnson, as essay is ,

 

“A loose sally of the mind; an irregular, undigested piece; not a regular and orderly composition”

According to E.V. Lucas,

“A good essay, more than a novel, a poem , a play, or a treatise, is personality translated into print.”

Aldous Huxley defined essay as,

“a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything.”

Montaigne (1533-92) could be considered the father of the modern essay. It was he who first used the term ‘essais’, meaning ‘attempt’ , ‘experiment’, or endeavor’, for this type of writing. His essays were informal in nature and had a warmth and grace about them. In 1597, Francis Bacon applied the word ‘essay’ to this genre for the first time in English. Bacon is considered to be a pioneer of this form.

FEATURES OF THE ESSAY:

Ø  The modern essay tends to limit its length and range as far as the treatment of the subject goes. When the essay grows too long and attempts an exhaustive view of the subject, it ceases to be an essay and the term ‘dissertation; or ‘thesis’ could be applied to it. The difference between an essay and the dissertation is that the essay is addressed to the lay person while the later is for the consumption of the specialist.

Ø  An essay does not attempt to give the reader an exhaustive or comprehensive understanding of its subject. A good essay should have conciseness and thoroughness expected from a master of the subject.  Comparative brevity is a formal feature of the essay.  According to the British author William Henry Hudson,

 

“selection and the proper distribution of emphasis will… be found among the elementary principles of essay writing.’

 

A good essay does not attempt too much.

Ø  In spite of being only about a part of a subject, a good essay nevertheless gives the reader a sense of completeness in its treatment. Although the essay touches a few aspects of a subject, it must look complete to the reader.

Ø  The subject matter of the essay is unlimited and the form could cover a vast range of topics.

Some of the well-known types of literary essays are

• Ø  Aphoristic Essay
• Ø  Personal Essay
• Ø  Character Sketch
• Ø  Critical Essay
• Ø  Periodical Essay

Conclusion:

The essay is a versatile and engaging form of literary expression. It allows writes to communicate their thoughts and ideas on various topics, appealing to readers’ intellect and emotions. With its concise format and clear structure, the essay encourages critical thinking and invites readers to explore new perspectives. The essay form has been flourished a lot because of the famous essayists like Charles Lamb, William Hazlitt, Thomas de Quincey, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Macaulay, Leigh Hunt, Thomas Carlyle, John Ruskin, E.V. Lucas and several others.

INTRODUCTION TO NOVEL AS A LITERARY FORM

 

INTRODUCTION:

A novel could be defined as a long work of prose fiction containing characters, incidents and a plot. The word ‘novel’ comes from the Italian ‘novella’ meaning ‘piece of news’ or ‘tale’, and was first applied to tales like Boccaccio’s Decameron. Which were very popular in the fourteenth century. Though it originated much after other genres like poetry and drama, it is one of the most popular forms of literature today.

The popularity of the novel grew with the passing of every century. In the 19^th century, many great novels were written by authors such as Walter Scott, Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot, Thomas Hardy and Henry James, to name just a few. In the 20^th century, the novel saw tremendous changes and became a highly sophisticated art form in the hands of writers such as Joseph Conrad, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, Graham Greene and William Golding. In the 21^st century, novels are being written in almost every corner of the globe, and novelists continue to experiment with various styles, plots and techniques.

ELEMENTS OF NOVEL:

There are certain principal elements which enter into the composition of a novel.

1.    Plot

2.    Narrative Technique

3.    Characters

4.    Setting

5.    Dialogue

6.    Style

7.    Implied philosophy of life

 

Plot:

Plot could be defined as a series of events developed in a meaningful manner. In the first place the novel deals with events and actions, with things which are suffered and done, and these constitute what we commonly call the plot.

Narrative Technique:

The method of narration is another element of a novel. To create a good narrative, the author needs to select the incidents carefully and creates some connection between a series of events. It is the narrator who weaves all these things together. There are three modes of narration- the first person , the second person, and the third person.

Characters:

Secondly, the thing happen to people and are suffered or done by the people and the men and women who thus carry on the action form , its characters. Creating life-like characters is vital to the craft of fiction.

Setting:

The next important element in novel is setting, that is, the time and place of action. Setting is the combination of place, historical time and social milieu. It provides the context and the general background for the characters and the plot.

 

Dialogue:

The conversation of the characters in the novel  introduces the next element that is dialogue. Dialogue is often so closely connected with characterization and hence an integral part of it.

Style:

The element of style may be put next on the list. This too is an important element of novel.

Implied philosophy of life:

 The last element of a novel is stated or implied philosophy of life. Directly or indirectly, and whether the writer himself is conscious of it or not, every novel must necessarily present a certain view of life, and of some of the problems of life; that is, it must so exhibit incidents, characters, passion, motives, as to reveal more or less distinctly the way in which the author looks out upon the world and his general attitude towards it.

 FEATURES OF THE NOVEL:

EXTENDED PROSE NARRATIVE

The novel is an extended prose narrative, unlike the short story which is smaller in scope and length. One distinguishing feature of novels is their length. They are considerably longer that short stories, ranging from a few hundred to several thousand pages. The extensive length provides authors with the opportunity for detailed description, character development and complex storylines. It allows them to create immersive worlds that readers can fully explore and become engrossed in.  

VARIETY OF CHARACTERS:

Within a novel, readers encounter a variety of characters, each with their own unique personalities, dreams and flaws. These characters undergo challenges and experiences that shape their growth and transformation. As reader, one has the privilege of accompanying them on their journeys, sharing their emotions and developing a deeper connection with them.

 WIDE RANGE OF THEMES:

Novels include a wide range of themes. They can be romantic, adventurous, mysterious, or even set in fantastical realms with elements of magic and mythical creatures. The diversity of novels ensures that there is something to suit every reader’s preference. It offers a captivating and enjoyable experience.

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, novels are lengthy and captivating literary works that transport us to extraordinary realms. They provide in-depth storytelling, intricate character development and the exploration of complex plots. Within their extensive length, novels offer a wide array of themes and genres, ensuring a compelling read for all.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION TO SHORT STORY AS A LITERARY FORM

INTRODUCTION TO SHORT STORY AS A LITERARY FORM

INTRODUCTION:

The short story is a favourite form in modern literature. Because of the rush of modern life, people find it convenient to read short stories rather than bulky volumes. A short story could be defined as a short piece of fiction that concentrates on a single incident, a single character or very few characters, or the creation of a single effect or impression. It is marked by an economy of expression and tightness of form, and can be read in one sitting. The defining factor of the short story is that it should be short. With the growth of various periodicals, the short story has become most widely read literary form. H.G. Wells defines short story as,

“The jolly art of making something very bright and

moving; it may be horrible or pathetic or funny or

profoundly illuminating. It should take fifteen to

fifty minutes to read aloud”

 

Here it is noticeable that any subject from the world can be included in the short story but it must limit its range as far as length is considered. Edger Allen Poe also emphasizes on the view that there should be no word written which is not concerned with the story directly or indirectly.

BREVITY/SHORTNESS/LENGTH OF THE STORY:

The short story, name itself indicates the first and foremost characteristic i.e., the shortness or pithiness of the story. It is the briefness of the story that differentiates short story from the other forms of literature such as novel, drama, or essay. However, it is very difficult to decide how the length of the story be measured. According to H.G. Wells:

 

“It should take fifteen to fifty minutes to read aloud.”

Somerset Maugham has indulged in counting of the words and states:

 

“The shortest item runs to about 1,600 words and the longest to about 20,000 words.”

 

But it would be wrong to fall into the exactness of the story’s length as D.H. Lawrence’s story ‘The Fox’ runs about 3o, ooo words; while Kleist‘s story Bettelweib Von Locarno is of only 800 words.

Edger Allen Poe emphasizes:

 

“In the whole composition, there should be no word written, of which the tendency, direct or indirect, is not to the one pre – established design.”

 

It suggests that the description of the incident or place or human must not be lengthened without necessity but it does not mean that needed description be avoided.

Short story must be brief need not be understood as the summarized novel. Information relevant to the tale must be included but like novel; short story cannot afford to diverge from the main plot.

Brevity or economy is the soul of a short story. The short story must present minimum number of events and character. It means that a short story must cover only a small chunk of human life. There should be no sub-plot as far as possible. Unnecessary characters should be avoided. The protagonist must be given importance.

SINGLE INCIDENT:

Short story cannot afford the space for a leisurely analysis and sustained development of character, and cannot develop as dense and detailed a social milieu as does the novelist. We can say that, by and large, the short story writer introduces a limited number of persons with single incident. Good stories concentrate on single incident or incidents of a particular person and not on a life story of character and characters.

An eminent short story writer believes that the short story should have neither beginning nor end. It should only be a “Slice of Life”

In the story ‘Child’ Premchand begins the story with Gangu’s leaving the job for  marrying  widow Gomti and people ‘s view about Gomti but very swiftly he focuses on the child and emphasizes the centrality of the story around child. It shows the very apt example of singleness of incident as story offers layers of talk but does not leave the aim.

 

SINGLE CHARACTER OR FEW CHARACTERS:

Short story should concentrate on the incidents in the life of single character. Story writer can introduce more than one character but focus must be on one whose life is described. Many characters in the story can spoil the whole design and it would not be able to give the desired effect.

As ‘The Gift of Magi’ narrates the life of the couple Jim and Della and their wish to give present on the eve of Christmas.

SINGLENESS OF EFFECT:

The founder of Modern short story America -Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edger Allan Poe both laid stress on the ‘Singleness of Effect’ and “Final Impression’ as hallmarks of good short story. Poe opines that a good short story writer will not arrange his thoughts for incident but for single effect. If writer is not able to establish the single effect, he fails to fulfill the first important step as a story writer. W.H.Hudson rightly puts:

 

“A short story must contain one and only one informing idea and that is idea must be worked out to its logical conclusion with absolute singleness of aim and directness of method”

Story should be able to complete the picture in its totality. It should leave the lasting impression in our memory.

VAST RANGE OF THEMES:

The range of the short story In respect of theme is unlimited. A good short story may be written on almost any theme and may deal with any kind of motive. H.E.Bates sums up the scope of short story in these words:

 

“It can be anything from death of a horse to a young girl’s first love affair, from the static sketch without plot to the swiftly moving action and climax”

 

 

CONCLUSION:

 The short story is a type of literature that people have enjoyed for a long time. It is a small story that tells a complete tale using only a few words. Unlike longer books, short stories aim to make a strong impact in a shorter format. Famous writers of short stories include Anton Chekhov, Arthur Conan Doyle, D.H. Lawrence, Leo Tolstoy, Ernest Hemingway, Franz Kafka, R.K.Narayan, Khushwant Singh and Alice Munroe, to name just a few.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Walter Pater

 

INTRODUCTION

Walter Horatio Pater flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century. This century was one which saw Arnold advocating, “Art for life’s sake” and Ruskin declaring that ‘morality and didacticism were an inextricable part of art’. However, Pater emphatically opposes the views and says that,

The work of great poets is not to teach lessons or enforce rules or even stimulate noble ends.

He was the pioneer of the Aesthetic movement which made a plea for the creation of beauty for it’s own sake.  It’s motto was ‘Art for art’s sake’. Pater echoed Dryden who believed that ‘ delight is the chief if not the only aim of poetry’. He placed importance on the ability of a work of art to place over its didactic content. He believed that the pleasing effect could be had if proper style is used to convey the sense. He believed that ‘the soul declares itself’ through ‘the shapes and gestures of body.’

HIS VIEWS ON LITERATURE

Pater’s literary criticism is extremely small in bulk. He divides the literature between two groups

·         Imaginative Literature

·         Unimaginative Literature

Pater begins his essay “Style” with the view that there is no essential difference between prose and poetry. The difference exists between imaginative and unimaginative literature. Imaginative literature is pure literature, which can move and captivate our hearts. It is full of aesthetic pleasure where as unimaginative literature such as books on science and theology is the literature of fact.

Since prose and poetry are two branches of imaginative literature, they are concerned with the expression of writer’s sense and vision. Both have no essential differences. Hence, that style is the best style which enables the writer to convey his vision exactly and truthfully.

HIS VIEWS AND CONCEPT OF STYLE

DICTION AND STYLE

To arrive at a great style the first step that a writer should take is to be careful in his selection of words. He should be aware of different shades of meaning the same word has and should use a word keeping this in mind. Pater believed that a prose writer should avoid false ornament and surplus ages.

That is, he should not use two words where  one is enough. Ornaments like figures of speech should be used only when absolutely necessary. For him the essence of art is not selection but rejection. He agrees with Schiller who says that, The artist is known by what he omits.

Pater’s advice to the artist was,

Say what you have to say in the simplest, the most direct and most exact manner possible.

He believed that each word has a sweet smell of its own and the use of every word should be justified.

COMPOSITION AND STYLE

Composition is an essential element of all art. By it Pater means that the sentences should follow logically and naturally.  Each sentence should fit into the other like bricks in a building. The end effect should be aesthetically satisfying. The artist should have an idea of the end in the beginning itself. Then only he can make a compact piece of work and avoid surplusage.

 The basic difference between composition and style is that composition is the mechanical side of writing and it requires mechanical correctness only. It depends on the mind only as it is just the combination of words, sentences and paragraphs. However, style brings into play both the mind and the soul. In style we find the genuine expression of an artist’s personality.

ROLE OF PERSONALITY

Hence the style of the writer greatly depends upon his personality. According to Pater even though a work may have unity of design and correct diction, it may still lack warmth, colour and perfume. This living touch can be provided only by the personality of the writer. By making a good use of his mind, a writer may reach us step by step but by his ‘soul’ or personality he overcomes us.

Pater admires Lamb’s style for his touch of friendship, warmth, love and care and also his deep sympathy for the weak and the oppressed. In the matter of style he considers Lamb next to Shakeshpeare on account of the sincere reflection of his personality in his essays. Lamb’s sympathy and affection bring us into close contact with his soul. And  Peter defining great art says,

 Good art depends upon the mind and great art depends upon the mind and the soul.

 Such art increases our sympathies, enables our mind and takes us near the glory of God.

 

IMPORTANCE OF CLARITY OF THOUGHT

Expression is the main aim of the writer and style is the way in which the artist uses words to express his thoughts. However the question of expressing his thoughts in a nice style arises only when the artist is clear in his thoughts. He should be clear about his subject first and then be worried about his language and style. If things are not clear in his mind then his expression will be  ordinary. The use of ornamental phrases and figures of speech without any clarity of thought is absurd.

CONCLUSION

Thus, Pater’s essay ‘On Style’ is not merely a treatment of qualities of good prose, it is also an explosion of his aesthetic creed and his principles of criticism. In this essay, while discussing diction, form and style, he also discusses the central problems of literary art.

Hence, Walter Pater  was a romantic impressionistic critic who did not judge literature according to rules and principles. He reached to a work of art and enjoyed it through recording his own impression. Therefore according to Pater, style reflects the author’s personality, his mood and mind. He agrees with De Quiency who says that,

Style is an incarnation of thought.

 

 

Wordsworth

 

INTRODUCTION

William Wordsworth is one of the greatest poets of England, one to whom Mathew Arnold assigns a place next only to Shakeshpeare and Milton. He was primarily a poet and not a critic. Wordsworth was dragged into criticism in spite of himself. For neither by temperament nor by training was he qualified to be a critic. As W.J. Owens says,

Wordsworth’s literary criticism springs from his creative writing; it is almost invariable an exposition or a defense of his own poetry.

The chief of his critical papers is the ‘Preface’ to the second edition of the “Lyrical Ballads” dated 1800, which was revised and enlarged in the subsequent edition of 1802 and 1815. The revision and enlargement also include an ‘Appendix’ to the edition of 1802 and an ‘Essay Supplementary’ to the ‘Preface’ to the edition of 1815.  Two years after the publication of ‘Lyrical Ballads’, he felt he ought to write a preface to his anthology as he was attempting to overthrow the neo- classical pattern and began a new mode.

Wordsworth began with a vehement opposition to the existing poetic diction by which he meant the mechanical application of conventions of rhyme and meter that rendered poetry only as grandiose sound without substance. Consequently, the moving power of poetry, was dead, its thought and language reduced to utter triviality and inane phraseology.

HIS VIEWS ON THE THEME OF POETRY

In the beginning, he expresses his views on the theme of poetry. His principle object in these poems he says,

“Was to choose incidents and situations from common life and to relate or describe them, throughout, as far as was possible, in a selection of language really used by men, and at the same time, to throw over them a certain colouring of imagination, whereby ordinary  things should be presented to the mind in an unusual aspect.”

For his choice of humble and rustic life, Wordsworth puts forward these arguments. In humble and rustic life feelings are freely and frankly expressed. In rustic life feelings are more simple, and so are expressed more accurately and forcefully. The manners of the rustics are not sophisticated. They are simple and so more conducive to an understanding of human nature and, In rustic life, human passion are connected with the grand and  noble objects of nature, and so they are more noble and permanent.

Being less under the influence of social vanity, they convey their feelings and notion in simple and unelaborated expressions. Accordingly, such a language, arising out of repeated experience, and regular feelings is a more permanent and more philosophical language. In this way, he sought,to imitate, as far as possible to adopt the very language of men.

HIS VIEWS ON THE LANGUAGE OF POETRY

Regarding the language of poetry he opines that,

There neither is, nor can be, any essential difference between the language of prose and metrical composition.

He believes that there is nothing special about poetry that requires the use of a special language. So Wordsworth intended to use, a selection of language, really used by men.

But such a language was to be purified of all that is vulgar and coarse. He was to use such a selection of language of real men, because the aim of a poet is  to give pleasure and such language without selection will cause disgust. Only such a judicious selection of such a language can give pleasure.

WHAT IS A POET?

Taking up the subject upon general grounds he comes to the question What is a poet? According to him

He is a man, speaking to men, endowed with more lively sensibility, more enthusiasm and tenderness who has a greater knowledge of human nature, and a more comprehensive soul…

The poet communicates not only personally felt emotions, but also emotions which he has not directly experienced. His enthusiasm for life is far greater than that of an ordinary man. A poet, according to Wordsworth, differs from other people only in degree and not in kind.

HIS CONCEPT OF POETIC PLEASURE

Wordsworth gives his concept of poetic pleasure. Poetic pleasure is not a more idle amusement. It is much higher and nobler.

Poetic truth is much higher than the truth of philosophy or history. Philosophy deals with particular illustration of that truth. Poetry gives us both universal truths and illustrates them through particular examples.

From a consideration of the language of poetry Wordsworth is led to a consideration of the poetic art itself. To begin with, he defines good poetry as,

The spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility…

The definition tells about the poetic process. There are four stages

ž  Observation

ž  Recollection

ž  Contemplation

ž  composition

First of all, the poet observes certain objects, or situations, or phenomena of nature, which excite in him certain emotions. He does not give poetic expression to these emotions on the spur of the moment, but rather carries them in his heart.

Secondly, he recollects those emotions in the moment of tranquility. At this stage, memory plays a very important part. In tranquility, the impression received by the mind is purged of the non-essential elements, and is qualified by various pleasures.

Thirdly, in contemplation, the interrogation of memory by the poet set up or revives the emotion in mind itself. It is very much like the first emotion, but is purged of all superfluities and constitutes a state of enjoyment. However this does not mean that the creative process is tranquil one. The poet expressly points out that in the process of contemplation tranquility disappears.

The four and the  last stage, is the stage of composition. The poet must convey that overbalance of pleasure; his own state of enjoyment to others and as a result the poetic creation takes shape.

Meter is justified for it is pleasure super- added. He says,

Verse will be read s hundred times where prose is read only once.

CONCLUSION

Wordsworth’s views on poetic diction are contradictory. The question is how with vulgarity of common speech refined by taste and dignity and variety added to it by metaphors and figures, is Wordsworth’s concept of poetic diction in any way different from that against which he protests? His poetic practice repeats the same taste. His greatest poems “Tintern Abbey”, “The Immortality Odd”, The Solitary Reaper” are not written in a selection of language really used by men.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dryden

 

INTRODUCTION

John Dryden was the representative literary luminous star of the Restoration Age. The name of John Dryden, a gentle, modest, unassuming, intelligent person, free from dogmatism and vanity of everykind commands a great respect in the field of literary criticism. Dr. Johnson goes one step ahead and calls him,

“The father of Modern English criticism, as the writer who first taught us to determine upon principles, the merit of composition.”

 

George Watson remarks,

“The first Englishman to attempt any extended descriptive criticism was John Dryden.”

Dryden’s Essay of Dramatic Poesy is one of the earliest examples of descriptive criticism. With the publication of Dryden’s essay in 1668, English criticism attained an individual character. Thomas Arnold put it as,

“The first piece of good, modern English prose on which our literature can pride itself.”

THE DIALOGUE FORM

The Essay begins with a picturesque setting, which represent the four interlocutors. The interlocutors set out to discuss the problems of dramatic poetry. The Essay is written in the form of dialogues. Crites (probably Dryden’s brother-in-law, Sir Robert Howard) speaks for the ancients while Eugenius the Borrowed name for Lord Buckhurt vindicates the moderns. Lisideius(or Sir Charles Sedley) praises the French drama and Neander (Dryden himself)defends English drama.

Through the dialogues among the above four friends Dryden discusses the ancient drama, the Elizabethan drama and Restoration drama.  In his address “To The Reader’ prefixed to the essay Dryden says that his aim was,

“To Vindicate the honor of our English writers from the censure of those who unjustly prefer the French before them.”

 

 

 

THE DEFINITION

After some brief introductory remarks regarding the bad verses, the conversation turns on the comparative merits and demerits of ancient and modern poetry. As a preliminary to the more serious discussion to follow Lisideius defines a play as,

“A just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the delight and instruction of

mankind.”

CRITES’ ARGUMENTS

   His first argument is that the classical drama is superior to all because according to him,

“Those ancients have been faithful imitators and wise observer of that nature which is so torn and ill presented in our plays.”

Secondly he puts forward the extreme classical view that it was the Greeks and the Romans who had discovered and illustrated the immortal rules to which even the modern dramatists have added nothing. So, in this point the classical drama is superior.

  Thirdly according to him, unlike the moderns the ancient observed the three unities with full fidelity. The unity of time restricts the duration of action. Unity of place forbids the change of location or scene, where the event is depicted in the drama considered to have taken place, unity of action implies that one complete plot should dominate the full drama and subordinate incidents, episodes should be avoided.

EUGENIUS’ ARGUMENTS

In response to the arguments of Crites, Eugenius says that it is true that the Moderns have used the advantages of the Ancients but they have illustrated the fundamental rules.  The moderns construct their plays better by dividing them into five acts. As far as plot is concerned according to Euginieus, in the ancient plot,

“Appetites were cloyed with same dish the novelty bring gone, the pleasure vanished.”

And so that one main end of Dramatic poesy, which is to cause delight was of consequence destroyed.

According to Eugenius the ancients failed in the technique of play- writing and also in their moral teaching. They often show vice rewarded and virtue punished. They were strong in scenes of terror, lust, cruelty and revenge but very weak in Pathos. Love that is the most frequent of all the passions was missing in the ancient dramas.

Hence Eugenius tries to establish the superiority of the Moderns over the Ancients. At this Crites remarks that the Moderns have not actually acquired a new perfection in writing, they have only altered the mode of it. He, however admits that if the ancients had lived in later times, they would certainly have made many changes. He says that in the meantime the merits should preserve,

“The dignity of masters and give that honour to their memories.”

The moderation of Crites pleased all the company and thus, put an end to that dispute between the Ancient and Moderns.

LISIDEIUS’ ARGUMENTS

In the beginning Lisideius admits that English plays up to 1625 were better than those of French. But later England had political troubles and so,

“The Muses, who ever follow peace went to plant in another country.”

He says that Classical dramas were the finest achievement of the play writing, the rules come from classical drama, but French Neo- classical drama followed the classical conventions in the best possible way. Thus, classical drama has achieved their maturity in French Neo- classical drama.

He rejects the absurd and unnatural mixture of geners in English tragicomedy in favour of regular French plot. He further says that the mingling of tragic and comic takes away all the unity of impression. So the tone should be either be tragic or comic. In the fourth argument he says that French neo- classical playwright wrote on some well known history with the addition with some fiction. What is fact, teaches and fiction, pleases so, both the functions are performed.

His fifth argument is that French Neo classical writers mastered the art of exposition, which is not achieved by other dramatists. He gives the example of Shakespeare's poor art of exposition in the play like ‘The Tempest’. So, in this base also French Neo-classical dramatists are superior.

He mentions sixth point about the superiority of French Neo- Classical drama. According to him they are very careful about the unity of time and place. Aristotle had given the dictum that the scope of a play was to be restricted to the events of a day. The unity of place should be preserved by not exceeding the compass of the same town or city. This the poets carefully observed.

The next point which Lisideius puts forth in favour of the French drama is the economy of the plot in their plays.  Their plots are simple and clear. There is no multiplicity of action and incident in their plays and therefore there is enough time to represent one passion fully instead of hurrying from one to another as in English plays.

Declaring the superiority of the French drama Lisideius then indicates that in the French dramas, the main focus is on the emotional entanglements of the principle characters or the hero.  All superfluous characters are carefully avoided by French dramatists even then each character, which is present, has a subtle role to play.

The french use narration to describe things that happen, like battle, deaths and scenes of cruelty, that are ridiculous when shown on the stage. The representation of incidents that can not be portrayed as realistic, possible or believable anyway are better omitted.

Finally, Lisideius prefers the rhymed verse of the French dramatists to the blank verse of the English tragedies.  Thus, Lisideius argues in order to establish the superiority of the French Neo- classical drama over the English. His argument is answered by Neander who is Dryden himself.

NEANDER’S ARGUMENTS

Neander is Dryden himself, whose task is to prove superiority of English drama over French Neo- Classical drama. For that he accepts merits of others and faults of English dramatists. He agrees with Lisideius that the French plays are more regular and that the decorum of the stage is maintained by them with mere exactness than the English.

He also admits that the French dramatists avoid such irregularities as are found in the English drama. But then he nullifies the effect of all of Lisideius’s claims and all that he himself had agrees to by one swift stroke. He says that,

“Neither our faults nor their virtues are considerable enough to place them above us.”

Neander , in order to take the argumen to the opposite camp goes back to the commonly agreed definition of a play being a , lively image of Nature He says that the French drama may be regular but its adherence to regularity and formality succeeds only in marrying the liveliness. Unlike the English dramas the French dramas lack life and variety. Hence Neander says that the beauties of the French play are,

The beauties of a statue but not of a man.

He then answers Lisideius’s charge of mingling of tragic and comic is vice. He denies the argument and says that it is not vice nor it affects the unity of tone but adds variety to the play.

 

Moreover, the continuous dose of the tragic would ‘make our spirit too bent’ and hence a dose of comic is needed so that it may freshen the audience for the journey ahead.

Neander also defends the variety and complexity of plots in English drama against the singleness of French plots. He says,

“Variety, if well ordered afford a greater pleasure to the audience.”

By defending English drama against Lisideius’s charge regarding the variety of characters Neander says,

“It is evident that the more the persons are, the greater will be the variety of plot.”

Neander agrees with Lisideus that scenes of death and violence should not be shown on stage but then he says that the temperament of the English is different from the French and hence they seem to enjoy the violent expression of passion.

Coming to the discussion of the validity of the three unities, Neander says that the strict adherence to the three unities often results in absurdities. It affects the plot and many possible artistic beauties have to be sacrificed. He argues that rules are means and not the end. They are the part of craftsmanship, what is more important is the ultimate effect of the play. Moreover the French critic Corneille himself admitted that the unities have cramping effect.

In order to supplement all his arguments with concrete examples Neander gives a general critical estimate of Shakeshpeare, Beaumont, Fletcher and Ben Jonson.

The tribute to Shakespeare is an example of Dryden’s critical acumen and sympathetic understanding. Eulogising  Shakeshpeare, he writes,

“He was the man, who of all moderns and perhaps ancient poets had the largest and most comprehensive soul.”

Commenting on Beaumont and Flecther, Neander says that there was some gaiety in their comedies and pathos in their more sensitive play which generally suit every man’s humour.

Comparing Ben Jonson with Shakespeare, he writes,

“I admire him, (Ben Jonson) but I love Shakespeare.”

This critical estimate reveals Dryden’s comparative method of criticism. Within a short space, he discusses the development of English drama from Shakespeare to Ben Jonson. In the words of R.A. Scott James, “Dryden opens a new field of comparative criticism.”

Thereafter Neander, examines The Salient Women , a play by Jonson in order to prove that even if an English play is judged by those rules which the French so much emphasise upon, it comes off with flying colours.

Thus Neander successfully defends the English drama against the onslaught of Lisideius.

Then the discussion turns to rhyme and Crites attacks rhyme violently by saying that it is unnatural, because it is an artificial form of  expression. According to him Blank Verse, which is nearest prose should be used in drama. On the other hand Neander defends the use of rhyme by saying that rhyme is more effective than Blank verse. Rhyme expresses a thought musically. He further says that  rhyme disciplines the poet and controls his fancy and prevents him from running too freely.

The essay ends in a picturesque fashion. The discussion has been tentative and exploratory. In the words of Donald Daive,

“…conclusions are not reached, or rather too many conclusions are reached.”

CONCLUSION

The real greatness of this founder of descriptive criticism in English is that at a time when literature was cramped with formulas, he found it impossible to write otherwise than freely. It was he who first observed that,

“It is not enough that Aristotle has said so, for Aristotle drew his models of tragedy from Sophocles and Euripides. And if had seen ours, might have changed his mind.”

Dryden drew attention to the higher function of criticism which is the appreciation of literary excellence. He is the true father of English practical criticism.

The ‘Essay of Dramtatic Poesy’ is Dryden’s masterpiece, it is a work which presents Dryden at his critical best as Wimsalt and Brooks, correctly says,

“It is the most ambitiously constructed critical document of his career and most important for general literary theory.”